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TWO MULTIMETERS
There are basically two different types of MULTIMETER. ANALOGUE and DIGITAL Analogue Multimeters have a NEEDLE or POINTER that moves across a scale. Digital Multimeters have a numeric display of 3 or more digits. A Digital Multimeter with 3½ digits means the first digit shows only "1." You really need both types to cover the number of tests needed for designing and repair-work. We will discuss how they work, how to use them and some of the differences between them.
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BUYING
A MULTIMETER There are many different types on the market. The cost is determined by the number of ranges and also the extra features such as diode tester, buzzer (continuity), transistor tester, high DC current and others. Since most multimeters are reliable and accurate, buy one with the greatest number of ranges at the lowest cost. The cheapest multimeters are on eBay. This article explains the difference between an analogue meter and a digital meter. Multimeters are sometimes called a "meter", a "VOM" (Volts-Ohms-Milliamps or Volt Ohm Meter) or "multi-tester" or even "a tester" - they are all the same. One term used to describe a DIGITAL MULTIMETER is 3½ digits. This is the number of digits on the display. The first digit is usually made from two pixels and can only produce "1." This is called a half-digit. The other digits are full digits. The cheapest digital multimeters have 3½ digits. This will produce a reading of 1999 and the decimal point can produce values from 1.999 to 19.99 to 199.9 to 1999. Another term is DISPLAY COUNTS. This is connected with the accuracy of the display, but since digital meters are accurate to 1% or less and we are using resistors with an accuracy of 5%, even a $10.00 digital meter will be perfect. |
USING A
MULTIMETER Analogue and digital multimeters have either a rotary selector switch or push buttons to select the appropriate function and range. Some Digital Multimeters (DMMs) are auto ranging; they automatically select the correct range of voltage, resistance, or current when doing a test. However you need to select the function. Before making any measurement you need to know what you are checking. If you are measuring voltage, select the AC range (10v, 50v, 250v, or 1000v) or DC range (0.5v, 2.5v, 10v, 50v, 250v, or 1000v). If you are measuring resistance, select the Ohms range (x1, x10, x100, x1k, x10k). If you are measuring current, select the appropriate current range DCmA 0.5mA, 50mA, 500mA, 10A. Every multimeter is different however the photo below shows a low cost Analogue multimeter with the basic ranges.
The most important
point to remember is this:
The
Common (negative) lead ALWAYS fits into The black "test
lead" plugs into the socket marked "-" "Common", or "Com," and
the red "test lead" plugs into the meter socket marked "+" or "V-W-mA."
The third banana socket measures HIGH CURRENT and the positive
(red lead) plugs into this. You DO NOT move the negative "-"
lead at any time.
Analogue meters have an "Ohms Adjustment" to allow for the change in voltage of the battery inside the meter (as it gets old).
Before taking a resistance reading (each time, for any of the Ohms scales) you need to "ZERO SET" the scale, by touching the two probes together and adjust the pot until the needle reads "0" (swings FULL SCALE). If the pointer does not reach full scale, the batteries need replacing. Digital multimeters do not need "zero adjustment." |
ANALOGUE Vs
DIGITAL You cannot say one meter is better than the other because BOTH have advantages and disadvantages. An analogue multimeter is the "old style" and it puts a load on a circuit and this may change the reading to give an incorrect readout, but it has the advantage of the needle moving across the scale fairly quickly so you can sometimes see if the voltage is fluctuating. It also gives a more-accurate result in some high frequency circuits as it does not pick up stray fields and produce a false reading. Digital meters put almost no load on a circuit and produce accurate readings from both low-impedance and high-impedance circuits. Digital meters can display very low resistances. You must remember to turn a Digital meter OFF to prevent the battery going flat. If you are testing a circuit containing a high-frequency oscillator, use BOTH an ANALOGUE and DIGITAL meter to check the reading. Sometimes the leads of a Digital multimeter will pick up signals and create a false reading. Sometimes you will get a voltage reading with a Digital multimeter due to a high resistance leak and a zero reading with an Analogue meter. This is why you need BOTH meters. |
MEASURING
VOLTAGE Most of the readings taken with a multimeter will be VOLTAGE readings. Before taking a reading, you should select the highest range and if the needle does not move up scale (to the right), you can select another range. Always switch to the highest range before probing a circuit and keep your fingers away from the component being tested. If the meter is Digital, select the highest range or use the auto-ranging feature, by selecting "V." The meter will automatically produce a result, even if the voltage is AC or DC. If the meter is not auto-ranging, you will have to select if the voltage is from a DC source or if the voltage is from an AC source. DC means Direct Current (but this does not mean you select the CURRENT range - you are taking a voltage reading that is not rising and falling. That's why we say it is DC and do not say the words "direct current"). The voltage is coming from a battery or supply where it is steady and not "rising and falling." You can measure the voltage at different points in a circuit by connecting the black probe to chassis. This is the 0v reference and is commonly called "Chassis" or "Earth" or "Ground" or "0v." The red lead is called the "measuring lead" or "measuring probe" and it can measure voltages at any point in a circuit. Sometimes there are "test points" on a circuit and these are wires or loops designed to hold the tip of the red probe (or a red probe fitted with a mini clip). You can also measure voltages ACROSS A COMPONENT. In other words, the reading is taken in PARALLEL with the component. It may be the voltage across a transistor, resistor, capacitor, diode or coil. In most cases this voltage will be less than the supply voltage. If you are measuring the voltage in a circuit that has a HIGH IMPEDANCE, the reading will be inaccurate, up to 90% !!!, if you use a cheap analogue meter. Here's a simple case. |
MEASURING VOLTAGES in a CIRCUIT You can take many voltage-measurements in a circuit. You can measure "across" a component, or between any point in a circuit and either the positive rail or earth rail (0v rail). In the following circuit, the 5 most important voltage-measurements are shown. Voltage "A" is across the electret microphone. It should be between 20mV and 500mV. Voltage "B" should be about 0.6v. Voltage "C" should be about half-rail voltage. This allows the transistor to amplify both the positive and negative parts of the waveform. Voltage "D" should be about 1-3v. Voltage "E" should be the battery voltage of 12v. |
MEASURING CURRENT You will rarely need to take current measurements, however most multimeters have DC current ranges such as 0.5mA, 50mA, 500mA and 10Amp (via the extra banana socket) and some meters have AC current ranges. Measuring the current of a circuit will tell you a lot of things. If you know the normal current, a high or low current can let you know if the circuit is overloaded or not fully operational. Current is always measured when the circuit is working (i.e: with power applied). It is measured IN SERIES with the circuit or component under test. The easiest way to measure current is to remove the fuse and take a reading across the fuse-holder. Or remove one lead of the battery or turn the project off, and measure across the switch. If this is not possible, you will need to remove one end of a component and measure with the two probes in the "opening." Resistors are the easiest things to desolder, but you may have to cut a track in some circuits. You have to get an "opening" so that a current reading can be taken. The following diagrams show how to connect the probes to take a CURRENT reading. Do not measure the current ACROSS a component as this will create a "short-circuit." The component is designed to drop a certain voltage and when you place the probes across this component, you are effectively adding a "link" or "jumper" and the voltage at the left-side of the component will appear on the right-side. This voltage may be too high for the circuit being supplied and the result will be damage.
Do NOT measure the
CURRENT of a battery Do not measure the
"current a battery will deliver" by placing the probes across
the terminals. It will deliver a very high current and damage
the meter instantly. There are special battery testing
instruments for this purpose. |
MEASURING RESISTANCE
Turn a circuit off before measuring resistance. If any voltage is present, the value of resistance will be incorrect. In most cases you cannot measure a component while it is in-circuit. This is because the meter is actually measuring a voltage across a component and calling it a "resistance." The voltage comes from the battery inside the meter. If any other voltage is present, the meter will produce a false reading. If you are measuring the resistance of a component while still "in circuit," (with the power off) the reading will be lower than the true reading.
1. Do not measure the "resistance
of a battery." The resistance of a battery (called the Internal
impedance) is not measured as shown in the diagrams above. It is
measured by creating a current-flow and measuring the voltage
across the battery. Placing a multimeter set to resistance
(across a battery) will destroy the meter. 1,000 ohms = 1k (k= kilo = one thousand) |
MAKE YOUR OWN RESISTOR Make your own variable resistor that changes resistance according to the pressure. Use a piece of conductive foam used to package Integrated Circuits. You can ask at an electronics shop. Use two coins or pieces of printed circuit board or aluminium foil for the top and bottom conductors. You can solder wires to the PC board or fold the aluminium foil over a few times to hold the wires. The resistance of the foam will reduce as you press on the "cell." The actual resistance-values will depend on the size of the foam, the thickness and pressure. This cell is a very simple cell called a LOAD CELL.
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MEASURING CONTINUITY
CONTINUITY is the same as ZERO OHMS or the resistance of a short length of wire. It can also mean the resistance through a switch or globe or a low-value resistor. It basically means a "PATH" and sometimes refers to a whole circuit when the switch is closed. In other words CONTINUITY means we have a "circuit." We have "current flowing" and generally refers to a low-resistance circuit. Both ANALOGUE and DIGITAL multimeters can measure CONTINUITY and you have to work out the approximate value of resistance for the circuit you are testing, - BEFORE TAKING A READING. If the reading is above 300 ohms or contains a diode, you cannot use a DIGITAL MULTIMETER as the buzzer on the continuity setting will not respond. The project being tested must not have the power applied as the resistance ranges on a multimeter are actually measuring a voltage across the leads and any voltage on the circuit or contained in any electrolytics, will upset the reading. To take a reading with an ANALOGUE multimeter, select the x1 setting and the pointer will move across the scale to the actual value of resistance. It it move full scale, you have ZERO OHMS resistance and this can mean a short-circuit or continuity via a wire. If a diode is in the circuit you must also reverse the leads to get a reading. The resistance of a globe will be very low when it is not illuminated, so don't think a fault is present. Measuring CONTINUITY is the same as measuring LOW RESISTANCE. To take a reading with a DIGITAL multimeter, select the buzzer setting. It will respond if the resistance is less than 300 ohms. It will not respond if a diode is in the circuit.
You can also use the x1
resistance setting to get an accurate value of resistance. Touch
the probes together to get the initial reading and subtract this
value from the final reading. |
MEASURING A DIODE
TESTING A DIODE ON A DIGITAL METER
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TESTING A LED Some multimeters will test LEDs. It depends on the voltage of the battery inside the case of the multimeter. Many analogue multimeters have a single 1.5v cell and these cannot test LEDs. Analogue Multimeters with 3v (for the resistance ranges) can test some LEDs. White LEDs need about 3.6v and they may not illuminate on 3v.
Digital multimeters have a 9v battery and they will illuminate all colour LEDs when the leads are placed as shown in the diagram:
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TESTING A
TRANSISTOR
WITH A DIGITAL METER Testing a transistor with a Digital Meter must be done on the "DIODE" setting as a digital meter does not deliver a current through the probes on some of the resistance settings and will not produce an accurate reading. The "DIODE" setting must be used for diodes and transistors. It should also be called a "TRANSISTOR" setting. TESTING A TRANSISTOR WITH AN ANALOGUE METER The first thing you may want to do is test an unknown transistor for COLLECTOR, BASE AND EMITTER. You also want to perform a test to find out if it is NPN or PNP. That's what this test will provide. You need a cheap multimeter called an ANALOGUE METER - a multimeter with a scale and pointer (needle). It will measure resistance values (normally used to test resistors) - (you can also test other components) and Voltage and Current. We use the resistance settings. It may have ranges such as "x10" "x100" "x1k" "x10" Look at the resistance scale on the meter. It will be the top scale. The scale starts at zero on the right and the high values are on the left. This is opposite to all the other scales. When the two probes are touched together, the needle swings FULL SCALE and reads "ZERO." Adjust the pot on the side of the meter to make the pointer read exactly zero. How to read: "x10" "x100" "x1k" "x10" Up-scale from the zero mark is "1" When the needle swings to this position on the "x10" setting, the value is 10 ohms. When the needle swings to "1" on the "x100" setting, the value is 100 ohms. When the needle swings to "1" on the "x1k" setting, the value is 1,000 ohms = 1k. When the needle swings to "1" on the "x10k" setting, the value is 10,000 ohms = 10k. Use this to work out all the other values on the scale. Resistance values get very close-together (and very inaccurate) at the high end of the scale. [This is just a point to note and does not affect testing a transistor.] Step 1 - FINDING THE BASE and determining NPN or PNP Get an unknown transistor and test it with a multimeter set to "x10" Try the 6 combinations and when you have the black probe on a pin and the red probe touches the other pins and the meter swings nearly full scale, you have an NPN transistor. The black probe is BASE If the red probe touches a pin and the black probe produces a swing on the other two pins, you have a PNP transistor. The red probe is BASE If the needle swings FULL SCALE or if it swings for more than 2 readings, the transistor is FAULTY.
Step
2 - FINDING THE COLLECTOR and EMITTER
For a PNP
transistor, set the meter to "x10k" place the leads on the
transistor and when you press hard on the two leads shown in the
diagram below, the needle will
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For more details on testing components with a
multimeter, see: Testing Electronic Components. |
MULTIMETER
TEST
1. What is the reading on the multimeter:
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2. What is the reading on the multimeter:
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3. What is the reading on the multimeter:
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4. What is the voltage between the following points:
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5. What is the voltage on each multimeter:
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6. What is the voltage on each multimeter:
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7. What is the reading on the multimeter:
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8. The multimeter has three resistance ranges:
x1 ohms
x100 ohms x10k ohms. How far across the scale will the needle move on each range for a 4k7 resistor:
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9. The resistance ranges on an ANALOGUE multimeter use the
battery inside the case to move the pointer. If the multimeter
is left on "ohms range" with the probes apart, will the battery
go flat?
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